| From Servitude to Slavery in the Chesapeake Region (1627-1789) |
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Sections:- Indenture Contract of William Buckland (1755)
- Indenture Contract of Richard Lowther (1627)
- Elizabeth Sprigs: Letter from an Indentured Servant in Maryland (1756)
- John Hammond: The Two Fruitful Sisters Virginia and Mary-land: Their Present Condition, Impartially Stated and Related (1656)
- Richard Frethorne: Our Plantation Is Very Weak: The Experiences of an Indentured Servant in Virginia (1623)
- Laws Concerning Indentured Servants
- John Barbot: A Description of the Coasts of North and South Guinea (1732)
- Olaudah Equiano: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789)
- Virginia Slave Code (1705)
- Digital History: Slavery and Indentured Servitude Video
- Power Point
- Historiography
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| Historical Context
Tobacco plantation required a lot of labor, and the number of plantations was growing, thus the demand for labor was high. The Virginia Co. instituted headright grants which gave a master their own large plantation if they paid for the transportation of workers and their families to colony out of their own pocket. One solution to this was to contract indentured servants. An indentured servant would be contracted to work for a master for a set amount of time in exchange for their passage to the colonies. Masters were expected to feed, clothe and house servants and their families. Care, however, tended to be lacking in reality.
Attached Documents
Below is an indenture contract from 1755 between a skilled laborer, William Buckland, and a master, Thomson Mason.
Questions to Consider
1) What was William’s profession?
2) What is the length of the contract?
3) How old was William at the time of this contract?
4) What does the contract require Thomson to do?
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| Historical Context
An economic dependence upon indentured servitude was unique to the English Colonies. African slaves were brought into the Chesapeake region in 1619, but they were more expensive than an indentured servant. By 1680, African slaves made up less than 7% of the population in the region. 75% of English immigrants to the colonies came as indentured servants. Young unskilled males usually had a contract that lasted 2-7 years. Children who were indentured were expected to serve until they turned 21. Some workers were convicts or vagabonds sentenced to service for up to 14 years by the English courts.
Attached Documents
Below is the indenture contract of an unskilled laborer, Richard Lowther, to serve Edward Hurd.
Questions to Consider
1) What is the length of this contract?
2) What kind of labor is Richard responsible for?
3) What is Edward required to give Richard upon the completion of his contract?
4) How does this differ from William Buckland’s contract? What accounts for these differences?
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| Historical Context
The Maryland colony was set-up as a “feudal style” colony. That is to say that all of the land was owned by a single family, the Calvert family. Upon the adoption of a tobacco plantation economy, however, the demand for labor rose dramatically. Maryland adopted a headright grant system as well in 1640. This was very successful, as the English population in Maryland exceeded 15,000 by 1670. As stated above, masters were expected to feed, clothe and house servants. The reality, however, could be quite different. Indentured servants were treated the same as, and in some cases worse than, slaves. Female servants were the victims of sexual exploitation. 2 out of 5 of indentured servants died before completing their term. Living and working conditions were horrible, and servants who tried to escape could have their term of service extended.
Attached Documents
Below is a letter from Elizabeth Sprigs, and indentured servant in Maryland, to her father in England describing the horrid conditions in which she had to live.
Questions to Consider
1) What is the tone of this letter?
2) Why do you think Elizabeth was sent to Maryland? What could she have done to offend her father “in the highest Degree?”
3) What are her working conditions like? Her meals?
4) What is Elizabeth in need of? Why is she writing the letter?
5) Do you think this is an unreasonable request?
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| Historical Context
Upon the completion of their term of service, a servant was to be given the things necessary to start out on their own such as clothing, tools, a gun, a spinning wheel, land, and sometimes even food. Many former servants headed west to start farms of their own. Some former servants had problems finding a wife. Some masters would allow the former servants to pay off the indenture of an unmarried woman, thus freeing the woman and providing the man with a wife.
Attached Documents
Below is an excerpt from John Hammond’s The Two Fruitful Sisters Virginia and Mary-land from 1656. In this excerpt, Hammond describes the day-to-day living of and indentured servant, and offers advice for those entering service. You will find that Hammond’s take on indentured servitude is quite different from the above account.
Questions to Consider
1) What can you tell about John Hammond from this excerpt?
2) What do you think is his social status?
3) How does his account of living and working conditions differ from that of Elizabeth Sprigs? Why do you think they differ? (bear in mind the authors and the years in which each is writing)
4) What does he say about what the servant is supposed to receive upon the completion of the term in service?
5) What advice does he give those who are considering indentured servitude?
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| Historical Context
Richard Frethorne came to Jamestown colony in 1623 as an indentured servant. Two thirds of his fellow shipmates had died since their arrival. Those without capital suffered particularly precarious situations with the lack of supplies and loss of leaders. Frethorne pleaded with his parents to redeem (buy out) his indenture.
Attached Documents
In this letter dated March 20, 1623, written just three months after his entry into the colony, he described the death and disease all around him.
Questions to Consider
1) What does Richard say about the food situation?
2) Who is the “enemy” to which he refers?
3) What has happened to his clothing?
4) What would Richard like his parents to do?
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| Historical Context
Indentured servants were an important part of the labor force in seventeenth-century Virginia. While their role as the primary source of bound labor would become increasingly less significant as the numbers of African slaves grew, there were a number of laws enacted throughout the seventeenth century that restricted both masters and servants.
Attached Documents
A variety of restrictions on the conduct of servants were passed over the course of the 1600s. In many cases, they were simply treated as children: the masters and mistresses were mandated to take care of them, and the servants were ordered to obey them. Trade between the servant class and the free members of society was frowned upon, and often restricted by law. Masters too were limited by law in their dealings with their servants. Masters were ordered to provide them with food, clothing, and shelter, were not allowed to treat them cruelly, and were liable to the courts if they were found to improperly treat their servants.
Questions to Consider
1) What kinds of complaints were filed against servants by their masters? What types of punishments were handed down to servants?
2) What were the rules concerning the marriage of servants?
3) What is the justification for a ban against trading with a servant?
4) What kinds of complaints were filed against masters?
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| Historical Context
English slave trade began in 16th century. A London slave-trade monopoly was given to the Royal African Company in 1672. In 1698, slave trading was opened to all merchants. This competition skyrocketed the number of slaves entering North America. John Barbot, an agent for the French Royal African Company, made at least two voyages to the West Coast of Africa, in 1678 and 1682.
Attached Documents
The following excerpt discusses the mean by which many Africans were captured and sold as slaves.
Questions to Consider
1) How do the European slave traders get their slaves? Do you find this surprising? Why or why not?
2) What does Barbot say about how the slaves within Africa are treated by their African masters? Do you think they were treated any better by American-European masters?
3) How does Barbot compare the treatment of slaves by American-Europeans to that by African masters? What do you think of this argument?
4) How does Barbot explain the lack of nutrition for the slaves upon the ships?
5) How did the different national slave trading companies distinguish their slaves from one and other?
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| Historical Context
Olaudah Equiano, an Ibo from Nigeria, was just 11 years old when he was kidnapped into slavery. He was held captive in West Africa for seven months and then sold to British slavers, who shipped him to Barbados and then took him to Virginia. After serving a British naval officer, he was sold to a Quaker merchant from Philadelphia who allowed him to purchase his freedom in 1766. In later life, he played an active role in the movement to abolish the slave trade.
Attached Documents
Below is a first-hand account of Equiano's enslavement.
Questions to Consider
1) What kind of childhood did Equiano have?
2) How was Equiano captured and enslaved? Was this a common occurrence?
3) What did Equiano think was going to happen to him while he was aboard the ship? How does this support Barbot’s narrative?
4) What actually happened to him while aboard ship? Why was he punished?
5) How does Equiano describe the actions of the white men? How does this compare to Barbot’s descriptions of the behavior of the Africans?
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| Historical Context
Most of the Africans working the fields in Virginia in the early 17th century were indentured servants, not slaves. The end of the 17th century, however, saw the development of colonies of free farmers, making indentured servitude less appealing to immigrants. Thus, the utilization of slavery increased. Landowners began to include slaves in the headright grant process, giving them an additional 50 acres for every slave they owned. By 1700, the number of African slaves in Maryland and Virginia was about 19,000 (22% of the total population compared to 7% in 1680). The use of slaves had become so widespread, that laws concerning slaves had to be enacted.
Attached Documents
In 1705, Virginia compiled a number of such slave laws to form the Virginia Slave Code.
Questions to Consider
1) What qualified a person to be considered a slave?
2) What is the status of a white Christian indentured servant compared to that of a free Jew, for example?
3) What was the reward for capturing a runaway slave or servant?
4) What sort of penalty did the slave owner face if a runaway slave were to make it across Chesapeake Bay?
5) How long was a slave permitted to be on a foreign plantation?
6) What was the penalty if a master killed his slave during a punishment?
7) How did the baptism of slaves affect their status?
8) In what way are indentured servants and slaves treated the same within the code? How are they treated differently?
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| Below is a video produced by Michael Ray of the University of Houston. It is a brief overview of indentured servitude and the transition into slavery. It also includes audio clips from an interview with a former slave. (6:15 minutes)
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| | This Power Point presentation addresses the subjects covered in this teaching module. |
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| The article below provides a broad examination of slavery. Such an endeavor has been undertaken to give readers a deeper understanding of the institution over time and in different places. Sadly, the institution of slavery was at one time very profitable and widespread. This article highlights how slavery existed over time and place.
Engerman, Stanley L. 2000. "Slavery at Different Times and Places". The American Historical Review. (105)2: 480-484.
The next article is particularly useful for teachers focusing their lessons on the study of slavery. Like the previous article, the author notes that slavery looked very different over time and in different geographic areas. These differences, posit the author, make teaching about slavery rather difficult. The article provides readers with some helpful insight into the teaching of a delicate topic.
Olwell, Russell. 2001. "New Views of Slavery: Using Recent Historical Work to Promote Critical Thinking about the "Peculiar Institution". The History Teacher. (34)4: 459-469.
The following article examines labor relations in the fledgling republic, the United States of America. The article highlights the relationship between hired help and those that hire, revealing interesting tensions within the labor market. The author also focuses on the origin of American labor law.
Kahana, Jeffrey S. 2000. "Master and Servant in the Early Republic, 1780-1830". Journal of the Early Republic. (20)1: 27-57.
The final article featured tells the story of Oluadah Equiano, the famous African slave who wrote about the experiences of slavery from his own perspective during a time when this was unheard of. Equiano provides us with invaluable accounts of not just slavery, but of the philosophical impact slavery has on those forced to work.
Rolingher, Louise. 2004. "A Metaphor for Freedom: Olaudah Equiano and Slavery in Africa". Canadian Journal of African Studies. (38)1: 88-122.
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